THE CONCEPT OF SPEAKING
A. Speaking As Productive Skill.
Speaking is one of the four language skills. If students want to speak English fluently, as Harmer says [2oo7 ] they have to be able to pronounce correctly. In addition, they need to master intonation, conversation, either transactional or interpersonal conversation. Transactional function has its main purpose conveying information and facilitating the exchange of goods and service, whereas the interpersonal function is all about maintaining and sustaining good relations between people. Speaking is called productive skill because when we speak we produce the language.
B. Speaking As Oral Communication skill.
When communicating his or her idea some one utters English sounds and he or she expects the response from the listener. Talking about communication, Harmer [1993] puts forward the nature of communication as follow: Communication happens when the listener can give the response to the speaker after the listener understands the message given. The message can not be understood when pronunciation is not clear This is the evidence that mispronunciation can cause the students to have misunderstanding. In the following section the writers of the module provide a review of twenty vowel phonemes.
1. Twenty Vowel Phonemes
Studying a target language means studying its elements, which consist of phonemes, morphemes, syntax and lexicon. Phonemes refer to words, syntax refers to grammar and structure and lexicon refers to meaning.
In this section, we will study the 20 vowel phonemes, those are :
2. About Intonation.
Hello dear participants .Can you do the exercises? Have you discussed how would you present it to our colleagues later? Practice again and again would be better and try to learn the 2o vowel phonemes by heart. Now you are expected to review intonation because we frequently find out that most learners need to practice intonation.
C. Models of Learning And Teaching Speaking.
The goal of learning and teaching English in junior and senior high school even in primary school is C.C [communicative competence].It is C.C which is designed based on Celce and Murcia[Department Of Education,2004],and it covers discourse competence, actional competence, linguistics competence, socio cultural competence, and strategic competence. Based on the 2004TEFL high school syllabus,2006 TEFL high school syllabus and KTSP teacher of English should teach English communicatively. It means that teacher should encourage the learners to have C.C by creating the atmosphere of the class which is rich in communication In other words, the characteristics of the class should be students centered, cooperative, the students should work in the small groups, they should be very active in discussing the tasks and exercises’ Dealing with the above characteristics of the class we put forward the following models of learning and teaching, CLT, CTL, Educational Drama and TPR Plus Speaking .the reason why we focus on those four models of teaching because they are not against School based Curriculum or they are relevant to S B C or KTSP.
1. CLT [Communicative Language Teaching].
We describe CLT based on two terms of CLT those are CLT in The Western Context and CLT in THE Indonesian context {Mulyana,Kim,1997]..Richards [2001] writes that the term CLT is used for substituting the term Communicative Approach, which has become an umbrella term.[Savignon1994, Turner 1994 in Mulyana Kim 1997.] It means that CLT is not an approach or a method but it is a set of approaches which have similar belief that the goal of language teaching is Communicative Competence.
CLT in the western context is different from CLT in the Indonesian Context, in terMs of each goal and the term of English used .In the Western context CLT is used for teaching English as a second language and the goal is C.C but it is designed based on Hymes [in Mulyana Kim 1997] which covers four components those are: grammatical competence , discourse competence, sociolinguistic competence, and strategic competence.
a. Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) In the Indonesian Context
English language is taught at school and spoken as a foreign language in Indonesia. It is one of the compulsory subjects to be learned at school based on the High School syllabus. The following lines will describe the characteristics of Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) in the Indonesian Context. Based on the curriculum (2004, 2006 and KTSP) are mentioned that the learners have to produce the production skills; they are Spoken and Written. It means that the goal of language teaching is to make the communicative competence and to develop procedures for the teaching of the four language skills that acknowledge the independence of language and communication. In teaching-learning process focuses on the learners and the teachers are as facilitators. It can be seen in the process that learners are more active than the teachers. The learners work in pairs or groups employing available language resources in problem solving tasks.
Communicative Language Teaching in the Indonesian context has the following characteristics (Mulyana, Kimtafsirah, 1997:51):
1) One of the goals of CLT in the Indonesian context is to develop reading abilities followed by speaking, listening and writing abilities, in addition, enhancing vocabulary, and mastering the elements of language based on the learners’ need. However, the goal of CLT in Western Context is also adapted, that is communicative competence.
2) CLT in the Indonesian context is equal to the ‘Meaning Based Approach’. According to Fuad Abdul Hamid (Hamid, 1996:8), the Meaning_Based Approach adopts the following beliefs :
• Language is an instrument for the expression of meaning reflected in the structure of the language,
• Meaning is determined by linguistics as well as situational features, basic to the development of meaningfulness in language teaching supported by cross cultural understanding.
• Meaning can be represented by different oral or written sentences. A sentence may have different meanings depending on the context in which it is used.
• Learning a foreign language is learning to communicate in a foreign language, written or oral, as a target language. Learning to communicate in a foreign language entails the necessity to learn other aspects of the target language.
• Learning motivation is a significant factor determining the success in learning. The degree of motivation is mostly determined by the degree of meaningfulness of the teaching materials and the teaching learning activity plays a significant role in achieving successes in learning.
• Learning materials and activities become more meaningful when reflect the needs of the learner in terms of experience, interest, values, and future prospect.
• In the teaching learning process, the student should be considered an important subject, rather than a mere object of instruction.
• In the teaching ¬learning process, the teacher serves as a facilitator that helps the students develop their language skills.
3) The elements of CLT in the Indonesian context include :
• Teaching communicative competence to EFL students,
• Teaching language as communication,
• Teaching communicating in the target language either teaching learners to have productive skills or receptive skills. Most communication occurs between students.
4) Classroom environment of CLT in the Indonesian context :
• Usually a large class.
• Learners speak the same L1
• The teachers are non-native speakers of the target language,
• The teachers need more information on error correction.
CLT in the Indonesian context needs a place for ‘grammar discussion’ (Mulyana, Kimtafsirah, 1997:51). Teachers need support to find the way to help their students. The current myth that CLT means ‘no grammar’ is not true. Long and Crookes (1992), Ellis (1992), Holliday (1994), Thompson (1996) explain how a focus on grammar in the context of CLT is desirable.
Rabu, 26 Juni 2013
listening
TEACHING LISTENING
A. Types of Spoken Language
Before planning the lessons for listening classroom instruction, it is important to discuss several types of spoken language. Nunan (1991) suggested a diagram to differenciate types of oral language as follows;
1. Monologue
In monologue the listener does not require to respond to message. It is also called an informational listening. This is where information is communicated to the listener. Monologue can be planned such as speech, news report, weather forecast or other prewritten material or unplanned such as description of something, emergency announcement etc. Monologues are example of one way communication. The speaker usually uses spoken language for any length of time, as in speeches, lectures, news etc. The stream of the speech will go on whether or not the listeners comprehend.
2. Dialogue
Dialogue involves two or more speakers and can be subdivided into those which exchange expressions that promote social relationship (interpersonal) and those which purpose is to convey propositional or factual information (transactional). Both types of dialogues can be between or among familiar people or unfamiliar.
Dialogue requires listeners to respond to what is being communicated. The goal of dialogue is to develop interaction between people. The listener communicates something back to the speaker. For example, greetings between friends, a discussion at a business meeting, and giving or receiving instructions at work.
B. Why Teach Listening
Everyone knows that there are four skills in learning a language, namely listening, speaking, reading and writing. They are always related in terms of usage, and speaking is viewed by learners as the most desirable skill in face-to- face communication in the globalization era. However, what is the answer to the following questions?
• What do you have to do before you can speak?
• What does a child learn before he talks?
• What do we do before chatting?
Listen, of course!
Naturally, children begin listening to their parents when they are babies. They are often greeted, spoken to and admired without any response expected. Though nobody knows if the baby understands the spoken words, the process continues. Children automatically acquire such language over some time, and later on gradually produce it through actual experience. The production maybe incomplete at first, but successful at last. That leads to speaking skill which is quite applicable to daily conversation.
In learning English, listening can help improve speaking considerably. Although it is the first of all skills, it is neither the easiest nor the most meaningless. We need to hear various types of English repeatedly and continuously if we want to communicate properly, meaningfully and naturally.
1. Why is listening good?
a. When listening, we are reviewing a lot of English usage such as vocabulary, grammatical structures, intonation, accent and our own interpretation.
b. We can learn new words and expressions by hearing them frequently.
c. Besides the English revision, general knowledge from news, features, or even advertising spots is certainly beneficial for regular listeners.
d. We can imitate what we hear and apply it with great confidence.
e. Listening can be a good ‘hobby’ while we do other things such as cooking, ironing, exercising, relaxing etc. In other words, we have no wasted time at all.
f. Listening is also a great way to train our attention
2. How can we listen to English?
Nowadays, radio cassette recorders are household, but we often overlook the radio function. We can experience English language radio programmes almost anywhere in the world. They are usually picked up on FM bands and aired particularly for foreigners. Short wave radio programmes are another option. Two of the most easily found English language broadcasters are the BBC and Voice of America.
C. Problems Faced by Learners Dealing with Listening Tasks
Here we are going to discus some problems from the point of view of the learner. What aspects of listening to a foreign language are particularly difficult for learners to cope with, and what can we, as teachers, do about them?
1. Learner Problems
Stage 1: Defining some problems
Read through the list given in Box 1 of some difficulties that learners have with listening to a foreign language. Add more if you wish.
Stage 2: Interview
Interview some learners to find out which of these they consider particularly problematic, whether there are any others they can suggest, and what sort of practice they find helpful.
Stage 3: Summary
On your own or with colleagues, try to summarize the main problems and make some suggestions as to what the teacher can do to help solve them.
A. Types of Spoken Language
Before planning the lessons for listening classroom instruction, it is important to discuss several types of spoken language. Nunan (1991) suggested a diagram to differenciate types of oral language as follows;
1. Monologue
In monologue the listener does not require to respond to message. It is also called an informational listening. This is where information is communicated to the listener. Monologue can be planned such as speech, news report, weather forecast or other prewritten material or unplanned such as description of something, emergency announcement etc. Monologues are example of one way communication. The speaker usually uses spoken language for any length of time, as in speeches, lectures, news etc. The stream of the speech will go on whether or not the listeners comprehend.
2. Dialogue
Dialogue involves two or more speakers and can be subdivided into those which exchange expressions that promote social relationship (interpersonal) and those which purpose is to convey propositional or factual information (transactional). Both types of dialogues can be between or among familiar people or unfamiliar.
Dialogue requires listeners to respond to what is being communicated. The goal of dialogue is to develop interaction between people. The listener communicates something back to the speaker. For example, greetings between friends, a discussion at a business meeting, and giving or receiving instructions at work.
B. Why Teach Listening
Everyone knows that there are four skills in learning a language, namely listening, speaking, reading and writing. They are always related in terms of usage, and speaking is viewed by learners as the most desirable skill in face-to- face communication in the globalization era. However, what is the answer to the following questions?
• What do you have to do before you can speak?
• What does a child learn before he talks?
• What do we do before chatting?
Listen, of course!
Naturally, children begin listening to their parents when they are babies. They are often greeted, spoken to and admired without any response expected. Though nobody knows if the baby understands the spoken words, the process continues. Children automatically acquire such language over some time, and later on gradually produce it through actual experience. The production maybe incomplete at first, but successful at last. That leads to speaking skill which is quite applicable to daily conversation.
In learning English, listening can help improve speaking considerably. Although it is the first of all skills, it is neither the easiest nor the most meaningless. We need to hear various types of English repeatedly and continuously if we want to communicate properly, meaningfully and naturally.
1. Why is listening good?
a. When listening, we are reviewing a lot of English usage such as vocabulary, grammatical structures, intonation, accent and our own interpretation.
b. We can learn new words and expressions by hearing them frequently.
c. Besides the English revision, general knowledge from news, features, or even advertising spots is certainly beneficial for regular listeners.
d. We can imitate what we hear and apply it with great confidence.
e. Listening can be a good ‘hobby’ while we do other things such as cooking, ironing, exercising, relaxing etc. In other words, we have no wasted time at all.
f. Listening is also a great way to train our attention
2. How can we listen to English?
Nowadays, radio cassette recorders are household, but we often overlook the radio function. We can experience English language radio programmes almost anywhere in the world. They are usually picked up on FM bands and aired particularly for foreigners. Short wave radio programmes are another option. Two of the most easily found English language broadcasters are the BBC and Voice of America.
C. Problems Faced by Learners Dealing with Listening Tasks
Here we are going to discus some problems from the point of view of the learner. What aspects of listening to a foreign language are particularly difficult for learners to cope with, and what can we, as teachers, do about them?
1. Learner Problems
Stage 1: Defining some problems
Read through the list given in Box 1 of some difficulties that learners have with listening to a foreign language. Add more if you wish.
Stage 2: Interview
Interview some learners to find out which of these they consider particularly problematic, whether there are any others they can suggest, and what sort of practice they find helpful.
Stage 3: Summary
On your own or with colleagues, try to summarize the main problems and make some suggestions as to what the teacher can do to help solve them.
reading
TEACHING READING
A. Teaching Procedures
In teaching practices, we should have clear cut dividing line between good readers against the poor ones. This is very essential to have realization that actually the ultimate goal of our teaching process is to move students forward into better condition of their reading ability baseline. There are a number of differences between strategic readers and poor readers during all phases of the reading process.
1. Before Reading, Strategic Readers...
• Build up their own background knowledge about reading and the topic
• Set purposes for reading.
• Determine methods for reading, according to their purposes. Poor Readers...
• Start reading without thinking about the process of reading or the topic.
• Do not know why they are reading but merely view the task as "ground to cover."
2. During Reading, Strategic Readers...
• Give their complete attention to the reading task
• Check their own understanding constantly
• Monitor their reading comprehension and do it so often that it becomes automatic
• Stop to use a fix-up strategy when they do not understand
• Use semantic, syntactic, and graphophonic cues to construct meanings of unfamiliar words
• Synthesize during reading
• Ask questions
• Talk to themselves during reading
Poor Readers...
• Do not eliminate distractions from reading
• Do not know whether they understand
• Do not recognize when comprehension has broken down
• Seldom use fix-up strategies to improve comprehension
• Skip or ignore meanings of unfamiliar but crucial words
• Do not integrate text with prior knowledge
• Read without reflecting on meaning or text organization.
3. After Reading, Strategic Readers...
• Decide if they have achieved their goals for reading
• Evaluate their understanding of what was read
• Summarize the major ideas
• Seek additional information from outside sources
• Distinguish between relevant and irrelevant ideas
• Paraphrase the text what they have learned.
• Reflect on and personalize the text
• Critically examine the text
• Integrate new understandings and prior knowledge.
• Use study strategies to retain new knowledge. Poor Readers...
• Do not know what they have read
• Do not follow reading with comprehension self-check
• Rely exclusively on the author's words
• Do not go beyond a surface examination of the text.
• Apply no conscious strategies to help them remember
After realizing the good reader characteristics, then we focus on what are the steps we should follow in providing strategic reading instruction. In general, you can implement some techniques for teaching before-reading strategies.
1. PREVIEW the text by looking at the title, the pictures, and the print in order to evoke relevant thoughts and memories
2. BUILD BACKGROUND by activating appropriate prior knowledge through self-questioning about what they already know about the topic (or story), the vocabulary, and the form in which the topic (or story) is presented
3. SET PURPOSES for reading by asking questions about what they want to learn during the reading process.
Two techniques prove valuable for teaching before-reading strategies are:
Think-Aloud
A think-aloud is a procedure in which students or teachers simply think out loud as they work through a procedure. Think-aloud may be used before, during, or after reading by teachers to model new strategies. After demonstrating new strategies through the think-aloud, teachers should structure activities where students may practice, likewise using the think-aloud technique with new text and working with a partner. Think-aloud are useful also after reading as an assessment device in a reading conference: Students read a text aloud and say what they think as they read, making audible the comprehension strategies they employ.
When using a think-aloud to teach before-reading strategies, the teacher verbalizes the thought processes used by effective readers in order to set a purpose for reading, to preview the text, to recall prior knowledge, and to make predictions. For example, the teacher might model a think-aloud in the following way to demonstrate how to set a purpose for reading the autobiography of Anne Frank:
1. Hold up the autobiography Anne Frank .
2. Read the cover and internal blurbs to the children, interjecting such comments as, "I've always wanted to learn more about the Holocaust, but I know it will be sad," or "Can you believe that a sixteen year old could keep a diary about these experiences? It makes my diary look silly."
3. Read the copyright page and dedication, making comments aloud such as, "This book was first published in 1947. I wasn't even born yet."
4. After previewing the book, predict aloud what might happen in the book or give a reason for wanting to read the book: "I'm going to read this to find out if she lives through it."
5. Direct the students to work in pairs to practice the same procedure with novels of their own choice.
Previewing
Previewing is a strategy to motivate students to read. The teacher might consider the following suggestions:
6. Recall and consider prior personal experiences that are relevant to the text.
7. Build the necessary background knowledge for the text.
8. Review textual elements that aid in later composition (cover blurbs, dedication, and copyright information).
9. Read about or contact the author.
10. Establish an organizational framework (chapter construction and length, prologue and epilogue, explanation of terms, etc.).
11. Predict the novel events.
12. Reflect on personal purposes for reading text.
Example:
When previewing December Stillness by Mary Downing Hahn, for example, the teacher might share a map of Vietnam and briefly explain the conflict and controversy of Vietnam. The teacher might read The Wall (a large picture book with reminiscences of the war and visits to the wall) by Sally Lopes to the students. The students might share their experiences with Vietnam veterans and then examine the textual elements of December Stillness in order to predict novel events. After reading the front and back covers, copyright page, and dedication, the students use a visual organizer to predict novel events. The teacher might then save the organizer for later review and give a copy to each student, asking each to record a personal purpose for reading the novel on the prediction sheet.
What are some techniques for teaching during-reading strategies?
During reading, strategic readers:
a. CHECK UNDERSTANDING of the text by paraphrasing the author's words.
b. MONITOR COMPREHENSION and USE FIX-UP STRATEGIES: use the cueing systems to figure out unknown words and imaging, imagining, inferencing, and predicting.
c. INTEGRATE new concepts with existing knowledge; continually revise purposes for reading.
Self-monitoring is the active awareness strategic readers have of their own understanding and control over that understanding while reading. It enables readers to measure their comprehension and take steps to enhance it. When students become conscious of their thinking and comprehension, they can deliberately apply different fix-up strategies when comprehension breaks down. A major goal of reading instruction is to expose students to equip them with productive self-monitoring strategies. Several of the following techniques are useful to this end.
Self-Questioning
Self-Questioning is technique in which students generate story-specific questions about the important elements of a text as they read in order to better integrate prior knowledge with the text and the reading context. Story elements whose meanings are extended by self-questioning might include the main character, goals, obstacles, outcomes, and themes of the story. Students move from a general question to a story-specific question. The generated questions may be used for group response and discussion. They may also be used with explanatory materials.
Teachers may implement the self-questioning technique in the classroom using the following steps:
1. The teacher models general questioning techniques for the students.
2. The teacher models how to generate text-specific questions based on the general questions while reading a text.
3. The teacher and students generate questions about a text together.
4. After all story elements have been covered, the students generate their own story-specific questions.
The following general-questions (GQ) and story-specific questions (SQ) for The Outsiders, by S. E. Hinton, show how this process may be applied in the classroom.
A. Teaching Procedures
In teaching practices, we should have clear cut dividing line between good readers against the poor ones. This is very essential to have realization that actually the ultimate goal of our teaching process is to move students forward into better condition of their reading ability baseline. There are a number of differences between strategic readers and poor readers during all phases of the reading process.
1. Before Reading, Strategic Readers...
• Build up their own background knowledge about reading and the topic
• Set purposes for reading.
• Determine methods for reading, according to their purposes. Poor Readers...
• Start reading without thinking about the process of reading or the topic.
• Do not know why they are reading but merely view the task as "ground to cover."
2. During Reading, Strategic Readers...
• Give their complete attention to the reading task
• Check their own understanding constantly
• Monitor their reading comprehension and do it so often that it becomes automatic
• Stop to use a fix-up strategy when they do not understand
• Use semantic, syntactic, and graphophonic cues to construct meanings of unfamiliar words
• Synthesize during reading
• Ask questions
• Talk to themselves during reading
Poor Readers...
• Do not eliminate distractions from reading
• Do not know whether they understand
• Do not recognize when comprehension has broken down
• Seldom use fix-up strategies to improve comprehension
• Skip or ignore meanings of unfamiliar but crucial words
• Do not integrate text with prior knowledge
• Read without reflecting on meaning or text organization.
3. After Reading, Strategic Readers...
• Decide if they have achieved their goals for reading
• Evaluate their understanding of what was read
• Summarize the major ideas
• Seek additional information from outside sources
• Distinguish between relevant and irrelevant ideas
• Paraphrase the text what they have learned.
• Reflect on and personalize the text
• Critically examine the text
• Integrate new understandings and prior knowledge.
• Use study strategies to retain new knowledge. Poor Readers...
• Do not know what they have read
• Do not follow reading with comprehension self-check
• Rely exclusively on the author's words
• Do not go beyond a surface examination of the text.
• Apply no conscious strategies to help them remember
After realizing the good reader characteristics, then we focus on what are the steps we should follow in providing strategic reading instruction. In general, you can implement some techniques for teaching before-reading strategies.
1. PREVIEW the text by looking at the title, the pictures, and the print in order to evoke relevant thoughts and memories
2. BUILD BACKGROUND by activating appropriate prior knowledge through self-questioning about what they already know about the topic (or story), the vocabulary, and the form in which the topic (or story) is presented
3. SET PURPOSES for reading by asking questions about what they want to learn during the reading process.
Two techniques prove valuable for teaching before-reading strategies are:
Think-Aloud
A think-aloud is a procedure in which students or teachers simply think out loud as they work through a procedure. Think-aloud may be used before, during, or after reading by teachers to model new strategies. After demonstrating new strategies through the think-aloud, teachers should structure activities where students may practice, likewise using the think-aloud technique with new text and working with a partner. Think-aloud are useful also after reading as an assessment device in a reading conference: Students read a text aloud and say what they think as they read, making audible the comprehension strategies they employ.
When using a think-aloud to teach before-reading strategies, the teacher verbalizes the thought processes used by effective readers in order to set a purpose for reading, to preview the text, to recall prior knowledge, and to make predictions. For example, the teacher might model a think-aloud in the following way to demonstrate how to set a purpose for reading the autobiography of Anne Frank:
1. Hold up the autobiography Anne Frank .
2. Read the cover and internal blurbs to the children, interjecting such comments as, "I've always wanted to learn more about the Holocaust, but I know it will be sad," or "Can you believe that a sixteen year old could keep a diary about these experiences? It makes my diary look silly."
3. Read the copyright page and dedication, making comments aloud such as, "This book was first published in 1947. I wasn't even born yet."
4. After previewing the book, predict aloud what might happen in the book or give a reason for wanting to read the book: "I'm going to read this to find out if she lives through it."
5. Direct the students to work in pairs to practice the same procedure with novels of their own choice.
Previewing
Previewing is a strategy to motivate students to read. The teacher might consider the following suggestions:
6. Recall and consider prior personal experiences that are relevant to the text.
7. Build the necessary background knowledge for the text.
8. Review textual elements that aid in later composition (cover blurbs, dedication, and copyright information).
9. Read about or contact the author.
10. Establish an organizational framework (chapter construction and length, prologue and epilogue, explanation of terms, etc.).
11. Predict the novel events.
12. Reflect on personal purposes for reading text.
Example:
When previewing December Stillness by Mary Downing Hahn, for example, the teacher might share a map of Vietnam and briefly explain the conflict and controversy of Vietnam. The teacher might read The Wall (a large picture book with reminiscences of the war and visits to the wall) by Sally Lopes to the students. The students might share their experiences with Vietnam veterans and then examine the textual elements of December Stillness in order to predict novel events. After reading the front and back covers, copyright page, and dedication, the students use a visual organizer to predict novel events. The teacher might then save the organizer for later review and give a copy to each student, asking each to record a personal purpose for reading the novel on the prediction sheet.
What are some techniques for teaching during-reading strategies?
During reading, strategic readers:
a. CHECK UNDERSTANDING of the text by paraphrasing the author's words.
b. MONITOR COMPREHENSION and USE FIX-UP STRATEGIES: use the cueing systems to figure out unknown words and imaging, imagining, inferencing, and predicting.
c. INTEGRATE new concepts with existing knowledge; continually revise purposes for reading.
Self-monitoring is the active awareness strategic readers have of their own understanding and control over that understanding while reading. It enables readers to measure their comprehension and take steps to enhance it. When students become conscious of their thinking and comprehension, they can deliberately apply different fix-up strategies when comprehension breaks down. A major goal of reading instruction is to expose students to equip them with productive self-monitoring strategies. Several of the following techniques are useful to this end.
Self-Questioning
Self-Questioning is technique in which students generate story-specific questions about the important elements of a text as they read in order to better integrate prior knowledge with the text and the reading context. Story elements whose meanings are extended by self-questioning might include the main character, goals, obstacles, outcomes, and themes of the story. Students move from a general question to a story-specific question. The generated questions may be used for group response and discussion. They may also be used with explanatory materials.
Teachers may implement the self-questioning technique in the classroom using the following steps:
1. The teacher models general questioning techniques for the students.
2. The teacher models how to generate text-specific questions based on the general questions while reading a text.
3. The teacher and students generate questions about a text together.
4. After all story elements have been covered, the students generate their own story-specific questions.
The following general-questions (GQ) and story-specific questions (SQ) for The Outsiders, by S. E. Hinton, show how this process may be applied in the classroom.
writing
TEACHING WRITING
A. Writing as means of communication
“…writing will be used as a generic term to refer to all the various activities that involves transferring thought through paper. Writing that focuses primarily on the conventions of language form , i.e. grammatical or lexical structures, will be termed transcription. The term composition will refers to the skills involved in effectively developing and communicating an idea or making a point.”
(Dvorak quoted in Lee & Vanpatten, 1995, p. 214)
What have you written in your language in the past week?
Maybe you have not written anything in the past week! It is true that we do not write very much these days. But possibly you have written a shopping list, a postcard, a birthday card, some emails, your diary, or maybe a story. If you are studying, perhaps you written an essay. All of these examples of written text types. You can see from this list that text types involve different kinds of writing, e.g. single words only, short sentences or long sentences, paragraphs, special layouts , etc that show different ways of ordering information. When we learn to write , we need to learn how to deal with these different features.
All written text types have two things in common. Firstly, they are written to communicate a particular message, and secondly, they are written to communicate to somebody. Our message and who we are writing to influence what we write and how we write. For example, if you write a note to yourself to remind yourself to do something, you may write in terrible handwriting and use note form or single words that other people would not understand. If you write a note for your friend to remind him/ her of something, your note will probably be clearer and a bit more polite.
Writing is transforming thoughts into language; it means that we need to think about the content of our writing first and then arrange the ideas using appropriate language (e.g. grammar and vocabulary). Consequently we must learn about organizational skills in writing.
Writing involves several sub-skills. Some of these are related to accuracy, i.e. using the correct forms of language. Writing accurately involves spelling correctly, forming letters correctly, writing legibly, punctuating correctly, using correct layouts, choosing the right vocabulary, using grammar correctly, joining sentences correctly and using paragraphs correctly.
However, writing is not just about accuracy. It is also about having a message and communicating it successfully to other people. To do this, we need to have enough ideas, organise them well and express them in an appropriate style.
B. Why we teach writing?
Harmer (1998, p. 79) describes that the reasons for teaching writing to students of English as a foreign language include reinforcement, language development, learning style and, most important, writing as a skill in its own right
1. Reinforcement
Some students acquire a language in a purely oral/ aural way, but others benefit greatly from seeing the language written down. The visual demonstration of language construction is invaluable for both their understanding of how it all fits together and as an aid to committing the new language shortly after they have studied it . In other words, writing reinforce the grammatical structures, idioms and vocabulary that students have learned.
2. Language development
The actual process of writing helps students in acquiring a language because the process demands them to think and choose the sentences as well as words that they will use to express the ideas. This mental activity that students go through in order to construct proper written texts is all part of ongoing learning experience. Thus, the relationship between writing and thinking makes writing a valuable part of any language courses
3. Learning style
Some students are good at picking up language just by looking and listening . Others need time to think and to produce a language in a slower way to reflect what they have learned
4. Writing as a skill
The most important reason for teaching writing is that it is a basic language skill, just as important as speaking, listening and reading. Students need to know how to write letter, how to put written reports together, they need to know some of writing’s special convention such as punctuation, paragraph construction, etc just as the need to know how to pronounce spoken English appropriately
It could be said that writing is an important language skill. It is a productive skill that shows how skillful the student is in writing and discovers the talented students in this field. In addition, writing is a way that a student can express his ideas or thoughts on the paper.
In conclusion, writing is an activity that supports students to analyze and synthesize their discrete knowledge about language items into a text that is acceptable in an English writing convention by using the appropriate paragraph structure. Hence to be able to write students must write
C. Principles of teaching writing
Bryne (1988) suggests the principles for teaching writing with the following points:
1. Teach students to write
Classroom writing tasks need to be set up in ways that reflect the writing process in good writers. We need to encourage our students to go through a process of planning, organizing, composing, and revising
2. Provide adequate and relevant experience of the written language
Care is needed in the selection of text types for both reading and writing, always bearing in mind that students can usually read language that is more advanced than they can produce.
3. Show students how the written language function as a system of communication
When setting writing tasks, teachers need to vary the audience, identify who the readers are to be, and try to make every piece of writing fulfill some kind of communicative purpose, either real or simulated, when students understand the context they are much likely to write effectively
4. Teach students how to write texts
Unless you encourage the production of whole texts, you will not have the opportunity to teach all the important features that can help to make a text coherent.
5. Teach students different kinds of texts
Students need opportunities to practice various forms and functions in writing and within these to develop the different skills involved in producing written texts
6. Make writing tasks realistic and relevant
Classroom writing tasks should reflect the ultimate goal of enabling students to write whole texts which form connected, conceptualized, and appropriate pieces of communication
7. Integrate writing with other skills
It will be better if teachers design a task or activities in which we integrate writing with other skills. For example when we ask students to listen to an English song, we can provide a worksheet in which the students will try to complete the missing words.
8. Use a variety of techniques and practice formats
Teachers need to provide various writing activities from the controlled writing to the guided writing until free writing. Each activity will need different techniques and practice. Collaborative writing in the classroom generates discussions and activities which encourage an effective process of writing
9. Provide appropriate support
The process of marking, with its traditional focus on error-correction by the teacher needs review and modification into a range of activities involving students as well s teachers, thus making revision an integral part of the process of writing.
Students need time in the classroom for writing. The teacher’s task is to select or design activities which support them through the process of producing a piece of writing.
A. Writing as means of communication
“…writing will be used as a generic term to refer to all the various activities that involves transferring thought through paper. Writing that focuses primarily on the conventions of language form , i.e. grammatical or lexical structures, will be termed transcription. The term composition will refers to the skills involved in effectively developing and communicating an idea or making a point.”
(Dvorak quoted in Lee & Vanpatten, 1995, p. 214)
What have you written in your language in the past week?
Maybe you have not written anything in the past week! It is true that we do not write very much these days. But possibly you have written a shopping list, a postcard, a birthday card, some emails, your diary, or maybe a story. If you are studying, perhaps you written an essay. All of these examples of written text types. You can see from this list that text types involve different kinds of writing, e.g. single words only, short sentences or long sentences, paragraphs, special layouts , etc that show different ways of ordering information. When we learn to write , we need to learn how to deal with these different features.
All written text types have two things in common. Firstly, they are written to communicate a particular message, and secondly, they are written to communicate to somebody. Our message and who we are writing to influence what we write and how we write. For example, if you write a note to yourself to remind yourself to do something, you may write in terrible handwriting and use note form or single words that other people would not understand. If you write a note for your friend to remind him/ her of something, your note will probably be clearer and a bit more polite.
Writing is transforming thoughts into language; it means that we need to think about the content of our writing first and then arrange the ideas using appropriate language (e.g. grammar and vocabulary). Consequently we must learn about organizational skills in writing.
Writing involves several sub-skills. Some of these are related to accuracy, i.e. using the correct forms of language. Writing accurately involves spelling correctly, forming letters correctly, writing legibly, punctuating correctly, using correct layouts, choosing the right vocabulary, using grammar correctly, joining sentences correctly and using paragraphs correctly.
However, writing is not just about accuracy. It is also about having a message and communicating it successfully to other people. To do this, we need to have enough ideas, organise them well and express them in an appropriate style.
B. Why we teach writing?
Harmer (1998, p. 79) describes that the reasons for teaching writing to students of English as a foreign language include reinforcement, language development, learning style and, most important, writing as a skill in its own right
1. Reinforcement
Some students acquire a language in a purely oral/ aural way, but others benefit greatly from seeing the language written down. The visual demonstration of language construction is invaluable for both their understanding of how it all fits together and as an aid to committing the new language shortly after they have studied it . In other words, writing reinforce the grammatical structures, idioms and vocabulary that students have learned.
2. Language development
The actual process of writing helps students in acquiring a language because the process demands them to think and choose the sentences as well as words that they will use to express the ideas. This mental activity that students go through in order to construct proper written texts is all part of ongoing learning experience. Thus, the relationship between writing and thinking makes writing a valuable part of any language courses
3. Learning style
Some students are good at picking up language just by looking and listening . Others need time to think and to produce a language in a slower way to reflect what they have learned
4. Writing as a skill
The most important reason for teaching writing is that it is a basic language skill, just as important as speaking, listening and reading. Students need to know how to write letter, how to put written reports together, they need to know some of writing’s special convention such as punctuation, paragraph construction, etc just as the need to know how to pronounce spoken English appropriately
It could be said that writing is an important language skill. It is a productive skill that shows how skillful the student is in writing and discovers the talented students in this field. In addition, writing is a way that a student can express his ideas or thoughts on the paper.
In conclusion, writing is an activity that supports students to analyze and synthesize their discrete knowledge about language items into a text that is acceptable in an English writing convention by using the appropriate paragraph structure. Hence to be able to write students must write
C. Principles of teaching writing
Bryne (1988) suggests the principles for teaching writing with the following points:
1. Teach students to write
Classroom writing tasks need to be set up in ways that reflect the writing process in good writers. We need to encourage our students to go through a process of planning, organizing, composing, and revising
2. Provide adequate and relevant experience of the written language
Care is needed in the selection of text types for both reading and writing, always bearing in mind that students can usually read language that is more advanced than they can produce.
3. Show students how the written language function as a system of communication
When setting writing tasks, teachers need to vary the audience, identify who the readers are to be, and try to make every piece of writing fulfill some kind of communicative purpose, either real or simulated, when students understand the context they are much likely to write effectively
4. Teach students how to write texts
Unless you encourage the production of whole texts, you will not have the opportunity to teach all the important features that can help to make a text coherent.
5. Teach students different kinds of texts
Students need opportunities to practice various forms and functions in writing and within these to develop the different skills involved in producing written texts
6. Make writing tasks realistic and relevant
Classroom writing tasks should reflect the ultimate goal of enabling students to write whole texts which form connected, conceptualized, and appropriate pieces of communication
7. Integrate writing with other skills
It will be better if teachers design a task or activities in which we integrate writing with other skills. For example when we ask students to listen to an English song, we can provide a worksheet in which the students will try to complete the missing words.
8. Use a variety of techniques and practice formats
Teachers need to provide various writing activities from the controlled writing to the guided writing until free writing. Each activity will need different techniques and practice. Collaborative writing in the classroom generates discussions and activities which encourage an effective process of writing
9. Provide appropriate support
The process of marking, with its traditional focus on error-correction by the teacher needs review and modification into a range of activities involving students as well s teachers, thus making revision an integral part of the process of writing.
Students need time in the classroom for writing. The teacher’s task is to select or design activities which support them through the process of producing a piece of writing.
Kamis, 20 Juni 2013
writing
contoh article
The Using of Picture to Improve Student’s Ability in Writing a Descriptive Paragraph
By
Nurul Sriwijaya
Universitas Nusantara PGRI kediri
nurulsriwijaya@yahoo.com
Abstract
Key word : picture, writing, descriptive, paragraph
Introduction
Teaching English means that teach the students not only how to speak, how to read, how to listen, but also how to write. Also, talking about English means talking about how to communicate in English. Communication not only can be done in spoken but also in written. Most of students consider that writing is the hardest skill to master, because the ability to write in foreign language is more complicated than the ability to speak, read, or listen. It is hard to teach students how to write because it involves many components such as structure, vocabulary, punctuation, and spelling. In writing, we will also find many kinds of texts, one of them is descriptive text. People consider that descriptive text is an easy material, but in contrast, it is difficult because we have to write about the thing that is exist and the thing that does not exist, something that can not be seen, felt, smelt, or even touched. Therefore, the writer is so interested to find whether students will write a descriptive text better by looking or even touching pictures than only imagining it.
THEORITICAL REVIEW
Definition of writing
Writing is Communication not only can be done in spoken but also in written. It is not an easy job to do because the writer has to be able to pour the idea as good as possible to what will they write. It is done to convey the message to the reader clearly. That is why writing is considered as the most difficult skill to learn. In their book entitled “Writer’s Guide and Index to English”, Wilma R. Ebbit and David R. Ebbit stated that “writing is the act of joining words into sentences on paper”. It means that writing is not just exercising the fingers but it is also necessarily the act of finding words to express definite, fully formed ideas. Writing activity is done to find out what are thinking, what is looking, and what it mean.
According to Cohen and Riel in Yulianti’s thesis (1989), writing as a communicative act, a way of sharing observations, information, thought, or ideas with others. Meanwhile, Bryne in Yulianti’s thesis (1979) defined writing is transforming our thoughts into language. In other words, writing is transforming our thoughts into language. In other words, writing can be defined as a way of communication by transforming observations, information, thought, or ideas into language, so it can be shared with others. Also, Bryne (1979) added that it is neither easy nor spontaneous; it requires conscious mental effort. Writing is not only just transforming our thought or idea in written form but also it relays to the process of monitoring any single words or features that we have written and the process of rereading and revisingour writing. Voss and Keene (1992:2-3) write why we should bother with writing and purposes for writing as follows:
1. writng is a way of thinking and learning. Writing gives unique opportunities of explore ideas and enquire information. By writing, we come to know subjects well and make them our own.
2. Writing is a way of discovering. The act of writing allows us to make unexpected connections among ideas and language
3. Writing create reading. Writing create permanent, visible record of our ideas for others to read and ponder. Writing is powerfull means of communication for reading information and shapes human thought.
4. Writing ability is needed by educated people. Our skill writing is often considered to reflect our level of education.
Purpose for writing:
- To express yourself
- To provide information for your reader
- To persuade your reader
- To create a literary work
The Writing Process
In fact there are three main stages of the writing process : preparing to write, drafting and revising (Brown & Hood, 1998, p. 6). Then, in the practice, the process is often more like this:
The writing process depends on:
- Who you are writing or for (reader)
- Why you are writing (purpose)
- What you are writing about (content)
- Where you are, how much time you have, how you feel etc. (situation)
The five kinds or type of writing are the following:
1. Descriptive writing
2. Expository writing
3. Persuasive writing
4. Narrative writing
5. Imaginative writing
The important of writing
writing in schoolMost people never consider the complexity and difficulty of the writing process. In fact, relative to all other academic activities, writing requires more basic skills than perhaps any other.
Even during their earliest handwriting exercises must combine complex physical and cognitive processes to render letters precisely and fluidly. As writing tasks become more difficult, students must call on an increasingly wide range of skills to not only write legibly, logically, and in an organized way but also to invoke rules of grammar and syntax. This combination of requirements makes writing the most complex and difficult use of language.
Definition of Paragraph
A paragraph is a group of related sentences that expands a statement by explaining it, illustrating it, or proving it. It is not easy in making a good paragraph because we have to apply many components into the paragraph we make. Barnet & Stubb’s in their book entitled Practical Guide to Writing stated that it is commonly said that a paragraph has components itself:
a. Unity
Unity makes one point or it indicates where one unit of a topic begins and ends. The idea developed in each paragraph often appears, briefly stated as a topic sentence. Topic sentences are most useful and are therefore especially common in essays that offer arguments. They are much less common because they are less useful in narrative and descriptive essays.
b. Organization
Organization means that the point or unit is developed according to some patterns. A paragraph needs more than a unified point. It needs a reasonable organization or sequence. Exactly how the parts of a paragraph will fit together depends on what the paragraph is doing. If it is describing a place, it may move from general view to significant details or from some immediately striking details to some less obvious but perhaps more important one. If a paragraph is classifying (dividing a subject into its parts) it may begin by enumerating the parts and go on to study each in climactic order.
Among the common methods of organizing a paragraph are:
1. General to particular (topic sentence usually at the beginning)
2. Particular to general (topic sentence usually at the end)
3. Enumeration of parts or details (in climactic order)
4. Question and answer
5. Cause and effect
6. Chronology
c. Coherence
It is not enough to write unified and organized paragraphs. The unity and organization must be coherent. That is sufficiently clear so that the reader can follow the train of thought. Coherence is achieved largely by means of transitions and repetition.
Descriptive Paragraph
Descriptive paragraph is a paragraph which consists of three important qualities such as dominant impression, mood, and logical development. It is used to give vivid details of an object either it is person, place, or thing. Descriptive paragraphs include details that appeal to the five senses: sight, taste, touch, smell, and hearing. In a descriptive paragraph, the writer must convey information that appeals to all the senses, in order to give the best possible description to the reader.
There are five ways to create possible description:
1. Start with what the reader can see. Since sight is the most helpful sense, any good descriptive paragraph must first discuss what the writer wants the reader to visualize. Using strong adjectives to illustrate your scene, moment, experience or item to the reader will help provide a visual picture in your reader's mind.
2. Describe smells and tastes. Think about how you can describe the topic, scene, or moment to the reader in terms of how it smells and tastes. The best descriptive paragraphs use a whole slew of adjectives that make the reader feel as if they were actually experiencing the thing you're describing, and not just reading about it. Include a sentence or two about how your topic smells and use a few poignant adjectives to relay the smell of it to the reader. "It tastes good" is not going to provide a specific experience for your reader. However, "It tastes like Grandma's apple pie when it's fresh and still bubbling around the edges - crunchy, flavorful and sweet" helps describe the distinct flavor of your item. Smell and taste should provide the most helpful descriptions about your item, so try to make these most effective.
3. Say how the moment or item feels. As you continue writing your paragraph, write a sentence or two about how the experience feels. What does it remind you of as you imagine yourself running your hand along its surface, or the tingling feeling you feel run down your back? How are you reacting to the moment? Again, use descriptive adjectives to describe how the moment feels. Avoid using general statements like "it feels nice", which isn't descriptive at all. Opt for specific, definitive examples that relay the feeling of something to the reader.
4. Mention the sounds of the moment. What can you hear? Is there a deafening silence? If there is a buzzing sound, avoid simply saying "All of a sudden I heard a loud buzzing sound", rather "I jerked as all of the sudden I heard an indefinable buzzing sound, so loud I put my hands over my ears. I assumed it was the deafening fire alarm..." and the reader would be able to relate with the "fire alarm" description, as most people have experienced the startling noise of a fire alarm.
5. Include some other literary components. Using other effective writing techniques to top off your paragraph will make it all that more professional. If you include all these elements in your paragraph, your reader will be able to fully experience and appreciate your writing.
In a descriptive paragraph, the writer must convey information that appeals to all the senses - touch, taste, sight, smell and sound - in order to give the best possible description to the reader. This is easily accomplished by following these descriptive paragraph writing tips. Descriptive writing paints a picture in words that shows – not tells – what a person, place or thing is like. The purpose of descriptive writing is to paint a picture with words for the reader.
The basic of all good description is close observation. It needs a store of particulars to draw on. If the purpose is to picture an object, place, or person as any careful observer would see it, the details we choose will supply specific information about size, shape, weight, and color. If the purpose is to have audience experience the subject as we have experienced it, we might select different details or we might use the same details but treat them differently, emphasizing some, subordinating others, and choosing modifying words and phrases that convey mood, attitude, or judgment.
A paragraph is a basic unit of organization in writing in which a group of related sentences develops one main idea. It can consist of one sentence or as long as ten sentences. However the number of sentences is unimportant but it should be long enough to develop the main idea clearly (Oshima and Ann Houge. 1999:16). A paragraph consists of several related sentences that develop one unit of content. A paragraph may stand alone as a brief work, but usually it functions as a part of a longer piece of writing (Dornan and Dawe. 1987:244). A paragraph consists of one topic sentence and some support sentences. Some paragraph can create an essay, because an essay consists of some general statement and a thesis statement. Also, there is a concluding paragraph which concludes the main points in the body of the essay. An essay is a piece of writing several paragraphs. It consists more than main idea, so it needs more than one paragraph to cover the ideas (Oshima and Houge. 1999:100)
Definition of Picture
In a teaching process, teacher needs such thing to support fluency of the teaching learning process itself. Teaching is not only how to transfer knowledge but also how to make the students more understand. So, any media such as picture is very helpful to support the teaching learning process in a class. Now, the point is that picture can be very helpful in a teaching learning process because it supports the material that teacher give. It also enables the teacher to teach the material to the students.
The using of Picture in Writing a Descriptive Paragraph
In running a learning process, a teacher is required to be able to create an exciting and educating learning process. Besides, a teacher also must have responsibility in creating a good learning environment. One of the ways is by creating or choosing appropriate learning media. The choosing of the appropriate learning media will be very much helpful for the students to reach the aim of learning. It means that not all of medias can help the realization of the aim of learning, it will happen when the media used by teacher is not appropriate with the need. Sometimes, teacher needs media in teaching process but sometimes not depends on the material given. In this case, in writing a descriptive paragraph, media such as picture is very helpful .
Look at the example of descriptive paragraph below:
This is my classroom. It is a comfortable classroom. My friend and I are sitting at our desks. We are learning English. Our teacher is Miss Maya. She is a good teacher. Now, she is reading a book. My friends and I are listening to her carefully. Then, we write what she says with our pen. The teacher’s desk is in the left corner in front of the class. It is covered with a table cloth and vase with flowers on it. The blackboard with a box of chalk is hung in the wall in front of the class. A map of Indonesia is in the left wall next to the picture. There are also dustbin and a broom in the left corner in back of the class. We clean our classroom everyday before the class begins.
The descriptive paragraph above can be written by looking at the picture. It can enable to write a descriptive paragraph as good as possible.
According to Houghton Mifflin , picture is a visual representation or image painted, drawn, photograph, or otherwise rendered on a flat surface. A picture can also be defined as a visual representation of something such as a person, scene, produced on a surface, as in a photograph and painting. Picture as reflection thing is not only provides an important aids to interpreting primer and first-reader stories, but they also contribute to development of language ability and serve to widen experience background. Pictures can be used to give clues to class records.
Conclusion
The using of picture in writing a descriptive paragraph is very useful. It can also improve student’s ability in writing a descriptive paragraph. Using picture can create an interesting atmosphere in the language learning process.
References
• Barnet Sylvan. 1983. Practical Guide to Writing. New York: Little Brown and Company
• Ebbitt, Wilma R., and Ebbitt, David R. 1939. Writer’s Guide and Index to English. New York: Scott Foresman and Company.
• George E and Julia M. Burks. 1980. Let’s Write English. New York: Litton Educational Publishing, Inc.
• Harris, David P. 1979. Testing English as a second language. Bombay: TMH Publishing Company Ltd.
• Wishon.Segal, Margaret Keenan and Pavlik, Cheryl. 1990. Interactions II: A Writing Process Book. Singapore: McGraw-Hill Publishing Company.
• Warren, Thomas L. 1985. Technical Writing: purpose, Process, and Form. Belmont: Wadsworth Publishing Company.
• http://www.thefreedictionary.com/picture. Accessed in December 2009.
The Using of Picture to Improve Student’s Ability in Writing a Descriptive Paragraph
By
Nurul Sriwijaya
Universitas Nusantara PGRI kediri
nurulsriwijaya@yahoo.com
Abstract
Key word : picture, writing, descriptive, paragraph
Introduction
Teaching English means that teach the students not only how to speak, how to read, how to listen, but also how to write. Also, talking about English means talking about how to communicate in English. Communication not only can be done in spoken but also in written. Most of students consider that writing is the hardest skill to master, because the ability to write in foreign language is more complicated than the ability to speak, read, or listen. It is hard to teach students how to write because it involves many components such as structure, vocabulary, punctuation, and spelling. In writing, we will also find many kinds of texts, one of them is descriptive text. People consider that descriptive text is an easy material, but in contrast, it is difficult because we have to write about the thing that is exist and the thing that does not exist, something that can not be seen, felt, smelt, or even touched. Therefore, the writer is so interested to find whether students will write a descriptive text better by looking or even touching pictures than only imagining it.
THEORITICAL REVIEW
Definition of writing
Writing is Communication not only can be done in spoken but also in written. It is not an easy job to do because the writer has to be able to pour the idea as good as possible to what will they write. It is done to convey the message to the reader clearly. That is why writing is considered as the most difficult skill to learn. In their book entitled “Writer’s Guide and Index to English”, Wilma R. Ebbit and David R. Ebbit stated that “writing is the act of joining words into sentences on paper”. It means that writing is not just exercising the fingers but it is also necessarily the act of finding words to express definite, fully formed ideas. Writing activity is done to find out what are thinking, what is looking, and what it mean.
According to Cohen and Riel in Yulianti’s thesis (1989), writing as a communicative act, a way of sharing observations, information, thought, or ideas with others. Meanwhile, Bryne in Yulianti’s thesis (1979) defined writing is transforming our thoughts into language. In other words, writing is transforming our thoughts into language. In other words, writing can be defined as a way of communication by transforming observations, information, thought, or ideas into language, so it can be shared with others. Also, Bryne (1979) added that it is neither easy nor spontaneous; it requires conscious mental effort. Writing is not only just transforming our thought or idea in written form but also it relays to the process of monitoring any single words or features that we have written and the process of rereading and revisingour writing. Voss and Keene (1992:2-3) write why we should bother with writing and purposes for writing as follows:
1. writng is a way of thinking and learning. Writing gives unique opportunities of explore ideas and enquire information. By writing, we come to know subjects well and make them our own.
2. Writing is a way of discovering. The act of writing allows us to make unexpected connections among ideas and language
3. Writing create reading. Writing create permanent, visible record of our ideas for others to read and ponder. Writing is powerfull means of communication for reading information and shapes human thought.
4. Writing ability is needed by educated people. Our skill writing is often considered to reflect our level of education.
Purpose for writing:
- To express yourself
- To provide information for your reader
- To persuade your reader
- To create a literary work
The Writing Process
In fact there are three main stages of the writing process : preparing to write, drafting and revising (Brown & Hood, 1998, p. 6). Then, in the practice, the process is often more like this:
The writing process depends on:
- Who you are writing or for (reader)
- Why you are writing (purpose)
- What you are writing about (content)
- Where you are, how much time you have, how you feel etc. (situation)
The five kinds or type of writing are the following:
1. Descriptive writing
2. Expository writing
3. Persuasive writing
4. Narrative writing
5. Imaginative writing
The important of writing
writing in schoolMost people never consider the complexity and difficulty of the writing process. In fact, relative to all other academic activities, writing requires more basic skills than perhaps any other.
Even during their earliest handwriting exercises must combine complex physical and cognitive processes to render letters precisely and fluidly. As writing tasks become more difficult, students must call on an increasingly wide range of skills to not only write legibly, logically, and in an organized way but also to invoke rules of grammar and syntax. This combination of requirements makes writing the most complex and difficult use of language.
Definition of Paragraph
A paragraph is a group of related sentences that expands a statement by explaining it, illustrating it, or proving it. It is not easy in making a good paragraph because we have to apply many components into the paragraph we make. Barnet & Stubb’s in their book entitled Practical Guide to Writing stated that it is commonly said that a paragraph has components itself:
a. Unity
Unity makes one point or it indicates where one unit of a topic begins and ends. The idea developed in each paragraph often appears, briefly stated as a topic sentence. Topic sentences are most useful and are therefore especially common in essays that offer arguments. They are much less common because they are less useful in narrative and descriptive essays.
b. Organization
Organization means that the point or unit is developed according to some patterns. A paragraph needs more than a unified point. It needs a reasonable organization or sequence. Exactly how the parts of a paragraph will fit together depends on what the paragraph is doing. If it is describing a place, it may move from general view to significant details or from some immediately striking details to some less obvious but perhaps more important one. If a paragraph is classifying (dividing a subject into its parts) it may begin by enumerating the parts and go on to study each in climactic order.
Among the common methods of organizing a paragraph are:
1. General to particular (topic sentence usually at the beginning)
2. Particular to general (topic sentence usually at the end)
3. Enumeration of parts or details (in climactic order)
4. Question and answer
5. Cause and effect
6. Chronology
c. Coherence
It is not enough to write unified and organized paragraphs. The unity and organization must be coherent. That is sufficiently clear so that the reader can follow the train of thought. Coherence is achieved largely by means of transitions and repetition.
Descriptive Paragraph
Descriptive paragraph is a paragraph which consists of three important qualities such as dominant impression, mood, and logical development. It is used to give vivid details of an object either it is person, place, or thing. Descriptive paragraphs include details that appeal to the five senses: sight, taste, touch, smell, and hearing. In a descriptive paragraph, the writer must convey information that appeals to all the senses, in order to give the best possible description to the reader.
There are five ways to create possible description:
1. Start with what the reader can see. Since sight is the most helpful sense, any good descriptive paragraph must first discuss what the writer wants the reader to visualize. Using strong adjectives to illustrate your scene, moment, experience or item to the reader will help provide a visual picture in your reader's mind.
2. Describe smells and tastes. Think about how you can describe the topic, scene, or moment to the reader in terms of how it smells and tastes. The best descriptive paragraphs use a whole slew of adjectives that make the reader feel as if they were actually experiencing the thing you're describing, and not just reading about it. Include a sentence or two about how your topic smells and use a few poignant adjectives to relay the smell of it to the reader. "It tastes good" is not going to provide a specific experience for your reader. However, "It tastes like Grandma's apple pie when it's fresh and still bubbling around the edges - crunchy, flavorful and sweet" helps describe the distinct flavor of your item. Smell and taste should provide the most helpful descriptions about your item, so try to make these most effective.
3. Say how the moment or item feels. As you continue writing your paragraph, write a sentence or two about how the experience feels. What does it remind you of as you imagine yourself running your hand along its surface, or the tingling feeling you feel run down your back? How are you reacting to the moment? Again, use descriptive adjectives to describe how the moment feels. Avoid using general statements like "it feels nice", which isn't descriptive at all. Opt for specific, definitive examples that relay the feeling of something to the reader.
4. Mention the sounds of the moment. What can you hear? Is there a deafening silence? If there is a buzzing sound, avoid simply saying "All of a sudden I heard a loud buzzing sound", rather "I jerked as all of the sudden I heard an indefinable buzzing sound, so loud I put my hands over my ears. I assumed it was the deafening fire alarm..." and the reader would be able to relate with the "fire alarm" description, as most people have experienced the startling noise of a fire alarm.
5. Include some other literary components. Using other effective writing techniques to top off your paragraph will make it all that more professional. If you include all these elements in your paragraph, your reader will be able to fully experience and appreciate your writing.
In a descriptive paragraph, the writer must convey information that appeals to all the senses - touch, taste, sight, smell and sound - in order to give the best possible description to the reader. This is easily accomplished by following these descriptive paragraph writing tips. Descriptive writing paints a picture in words that shows – not tells – what a person, place or thing is like. The purpose of descriptive writing is to paint a picture with words for the reader.
The basic of all good description is close observation. It needs a store of particulars to draw on. If the purpose is to picture an object, place, or person as any careful observer would see it, the details we choose will supply specific information about size, shape, weight, and color. If the purpose is to have audience experience the subject as we have experienced it, we might select different details or we might use the same details but treat them differently, emphasizing some, subordinating others, and choosing modifying words and phrases that convey mood, attitude, or judgment.
A paragraph is a basic unit of organization in writing in which a group of related sentences develops one main idea. It can consist of one sentence or as long as ten sentences. However the number of sentences is unimportant but it should be long enough to develop the main idea clearly (Oshima and Ann Houge. 1999:16). A paragraph consists of several related sentences that develop one unit of content. A paragraph may stand alone as a brief work, but usually it functions as a part of a longer piece of writing (Dornan and Dawe. 1987:244). A paragraph consists of one topic sentence and some support sentences. Some paragraph can create an essay, because an essay consists of some general statement and a thesis statement. Also, there is a concluding paragraph which concludes the main points in the body of the essay. An essay is a piece of writing several paragraphs. It consists more than main idea, so it needs more than one paragraph to cover the ideas (Oshima and Houge. 1999:100)
Definition of Picture
In a teaching process, teacher needs such thing to support fluency of the teaching learning process itself. Teaching is not only how to transfer knowledge but also how to make the students more understand. So, any media such as picture is very helpful to support the teaching learning process in a class. Now, the point is that picture can be very helpful in a teaching learning process because it supports the material that teacher give. It also enables the teacher to teach the material to the students.
The using of Picture in Writing a Descriptive Paragraph
In running a learning process, a teacher is required to be able to create an exciting and educating learning process. Besides, a teacher also must have responsibility in creating a good learning environment. One of the ways is by creating or choosing appropriate learning media. The choosing of the appropriate learning media will be very much helpful for the students to reach the aim of learning. It means that not all of medias can help the realization of the aim of learning, it will happen when the media used by teacher is not appropriate with the need. Sometimes, teacher needs media in teaching process but sometimes not depends on the material given. In this case, in writing a descriptive paragraph, media such as picture is very helpful .
Look at the example of descriptive paragraph below:
This is my classroom. It is a comfortable classroom. My friend and I are sitting at our desks. We are learning English. Our teacher is Miss Maya. She is a good teacher. Now, she is reading a book. My friends and I are listening to her carefully. Then, we write what she says with our pen. The teacher’s desk is in the left corner in front of the class. It is covered with a table cloth and vase with flowers on it. The blackboard with a box of chalk is hung in the wall in front of the class. A map of Indonesia is in the left wall next to the picture. There are also dustbin and a broom in the left corner in back of the class. We clean our classroom everyday before the class begins.
The descriptive paragraph above can be written by looking at the picture. It can enable to write a descriptive paragraph as good as possible.
According to Houghton Mifflin , picture is a visual representation or image painted, drawn, photograph, or otherwise rendered on a flat surface. A picture can also be defined as a visual representation of something such as a person, scene, produced on a surface, as in a photograph and painting. Picture as reflection thing is not only provides an important aids to interpreting primer and first-reader stories, but they also contribute to development of language ability and serve to widen experience background. Pictures can be used to give clues to class records.
Conclusion
The using of picture in writing a descriptive paragraph is very useful. It can also improve student’s ability in writing a descriptive paragraph. Using picture can create an interesting atmosphere in the language learning process.
References
• Barnet Sylvan. 1983. Practical Guide to Writing. New York: Little Brown and Company
• Ebbitt, Wilma R., and Ebbitt, David R. 1939. Writer’s Guide and Index to English. New York: Scott Foresman and Company.
• George E and Julia M. Burks. 1980. Let’s Write English. New York: Litton Educational Publishing, Inc.
• Harris, David P. 1979. Testing English as a second language. Bombay: TMH Publishing Company Ltd.
• Wishon.Segal, Margaret Keenan and Pavlik, Cheryl. 1990. Interactions II: A Writing Process Book. Singapore: McGraw-Hill Publishing Company.
• Warren, Thomas L. 1985. Technical Writing: purpose, Process, and Form. Belmont: Wadsworth Publishing Company.
• http://www.thefreedictionary.com/picture. Accessed in December 2009.
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